Response paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Response paper - Essay Example The video shows the grave situation which has resulted in the forest of Boulder, Colorado. This forest is a vast land accommodating thousands of pine trees. It does not only provide for scenic beauty; rather it is home to several people who live among the beautiful mountains, forests and lakes of Colorado. Due to the rising global temperatures, the trees of the forest are encountering parasitic invasion by the ‘pine beetles’. These insects only infest at warmer temperatures and due to the climate changes they have gained access to the pine trees of Colorado. Because of this massive invasion, the pine trees of Colorado are dying and their number has decreased significantly over the past years. The destruction of trees gives way to an unhealthy eco-system, as the animal species of the forest will encounter a disturbed cycle of life. Moreover, the increased number of dead tree logs also gives way to wild forest fires. The Fourmile forest fire of Colorado in 2010 was a devas tating outcome of global warming which led to many people losing their homes in Colorado. This is an upsetting outcome of global warming that has affected the human population. If the balance of environment is not restored, the outcomes can be more devastating and life-altering. In view of the government’s basic duty to protect the natural elements of its domain such as air and water, the residents of Boulder, Colorado are standing up for their rights and demanding the protection of their natural resources. It is stated by scientists that if we decrease the total carbon dioxide production by 6 percent per year and increase the number of forests, then the balance of environment can be restored. People who appreciate and enjoy the natural resources around them are raising their voices as environmental activists to spread awareness and acknowledgement among the masses. Video 2 There are various ominous signs that point towards the changing climate of Earth. These changes and the ir effects are going to indirectly affect the human population, by shortcomings in food and water resources. The melting of glaciers is one of those worrisome indicators that signify the pacing global warming and this video explains the negativities associated with this melting of glaciers. The Himalayas is home to many gigantic and historic glaciers. Many years back, these glaciers were a source of awe and wonderment for the discoverers and mountain explorers. The thought of disappearance of these colossally huge glaciers never even struck their minds. However, some of these glaciers are melting, which apart from being a problematic sign of global warming, is going to affect millions of people living in the Himalayas. Industrialization of the world is leading to the glacial melt, which is exhibited by the difference in their sizes when compared to the glaciers’ older pictures and descriptions. A very relevant example would be of the Kyetrak Glacier, Mountain Cho Oyu. The gla cier has been affected by the global warming and has shown signs of melting when compared to the 1921 and the 2009 descriptions of the glacier. The Rongbuk Glacier, located in the Himalayas, is another victim of global warming and mountain explorers describe drastic changes in the glacier over the past 30 years. Explorers describe the glacial melt to affect the inhabitants of Himalayas. They will be facing problems in their

Fully Homomorphic Encryption and cryptography

Fully Homomorphic Encryption and cryptography Introduction Transferring files between machines (and users) is a common daily occurrence although the confidentiality of the data is a basic condition. Now problem was how to secure them from inadvertent addressee from observing the data, which are supposed to confidential and likely on risk if prepared well-known to negligent parties. In each of these cases, its important to know what options are available to get your file from point A to point B and to comprehend whether the technique you choose provides sufficient security given the sensitivity of the data being transferred. Cryptography is ability of secret text, or more precisely of stock up resource (for a long or shorter period of time) in a shape which allows it to be revealed to those you wish to see it yet hides it from all others. A cryptosystem is a technique to accomplish this. Cryptanalysis is to put into practice to overcome such endeavors to hide information. Cryptology comprises of both cryptography and cryptanalysis. The unique information to be hidden is called plaintext. The concealed information is called ciphertext. Encryption or Decryption is any modus operandi to convert plaintext into ciphertext. A cryptosystem is designed so that decryption can be consummated only under certain conditions, which usually means simply by persons in control of both a decryption engine (these days, generally a computer program) and a meticulous piece in sequence, called the decryption key, which is supplied to the decryption engine in the course of decryption. Plaintext is transformed into ciphertext by process of an encryption engine (again, generally a computer program) whose operation is fixed and determinate (the encryption method) nevertheless which functions in practice in a way dependent on a piece of information (the encryption key) which has a major effect on the output of the encryption process. The main purpose was to make sure privacy while you transferring your private data from one place to another place do not matter electronically or via users. There were many scheme but very complicated to follow them and most important less security. So time by time many scientists discover different techniques but Gentrys technique â€Å"Fully Homomorphic Encryption† got a tremendous value against all technique. All others techniques were performing well but with restriction but Gentrys scheme user can perform unlimited action. Objective Cloud computing Literature review â€Å"Homomorphic encryption is a paradigm that refers to the ability, given encryptions of some messages, to generate an encryption of a value that is related to the original messages. Speciï ¬ cally, this ability means that from encryptions of k messages (m1,†¦,mk), it is possible to generate an encryption of m* = f(m1,†¦,mk) for some (efficiently computable) function f. Ideally, one may want the homomorphically generated encryption of m* to be distributed identically (or statistically close) to a standard encryption of m*. We call schemes that have this property strongly homomorphic. Indeed, some proposed encryption schemes are strongly homomorphic w. r. t some algebraic operations such as addition or multiplication.† (Rothblum R, 2010). â€Å"An encryption method is presented with the novel property that publicly revealing an encryption key does not thereby reveal the corresponding decryption key. This has two important consequences: 1. Couriers or other secure means are not needed to transmit keys, since a message can be enciphered using an encryption key publicly revealed by the intended recipient. Only he can decipher the message, since only he knows the corresponding decryption key. 2. A message can be â€Å"signed† using a privately held decryption key. Anyone can verify this signature using the corresponding publicly revealed encryption key. Signatures cannot be forged, and a signer cannot later deny the validity of his signature. This has obvious applications in â€Å"electronic mail† and â€Å"electronic funds transfer† systems.† (Rivest et al, 1978) â€Å"Homomorphic encryption enables â€Å"computing with encrypted data† and is hence a useful tool for secure protocols. Current homomorphic public key systems have limited homomorphic properties: given two ciphertexts Encrypt (PK, x) and Encrypt (PK, y), anyone can compute either the sum Encrypt (PK, x+y), or the product Encrypt (PK, xy), but not both.† (Boneh et al, 2006) ARMONK, N.Y 25 Jun 2009: â€Å"An IBMResearcher has solved a thorny mathematical problem that has confounded scientists since the invention of public-key encryption several decades ago. The breakthrough, called privacy homomorphism, or fully homomorphic encryption, makes possible the deep and unlimited analysis of encrypted information data that has been intentionally scrambled without sacrificing confidentiality.† (IBM, 2009) â€Å"We propose the first fully homomorphic encryption scheme, solving a central open problem in cryptography. Such a scheme allows one to compute arbitrary functions over encrypted data without the decryption key i.e., given encryptions E(m1) ,†¦,E(mt) of m1,†¦.,mtone can efficiently compute a compact ciphertext that encrypts f(m1,†¦.,mt) for any efficiently computable function Æ’. This problem was posed by Rivest et al. in 1978.† (Gentry C, 2009) â€Å"Searching databases is usually done in the clear. And even if the query is encrypted, it has to be decrypted (revealing its contents) before it can be used by a search engine. Whats worse is that databases themselves are stored as plaintext, available to anyone gaining access. The smarter way to handle sensitive information would be to encrypt the queries, encrypt the database and search it in its encrypted form. Impossible until now, IBMs T.J. Watson Research Center (Yorktown Heights, N.Y.) recently described a homomorphic encryption scheme that allows encrypted data to be searched, sorted and processed without decrypting it. Fully homomorphic encryption schemes theoretically allow ciphertext to be manipulated as easily as plaintext, making it perfect for modern cloud computing, where your data is located remotely.† (Johnson R C, 2009) Body History of Cryptography In earliest era communications or correspondence among recipient and correspondent were only possible through extremely safe and sound way like loyal pigeon, physically or any other source but must be trusted. That was a time when it was very tough to believe or trust on available sources. There was a little doubt and big risk for the sender was if transporter discloses the information then any one can harm them. Progressively a newly ideas came with world called Cryptography/Encryption† means this is a technique in which the sender encrypts the communication using proper key and its only possible for receiver to decrypt it if he possessed the key. Key based Encryption. In key based encryption keys are the most important part of creating new ciphertext. A sequence of small piece used generally in cryptography, letting people to encrypt/decrypt facts and the same key can be used to carry out additional mathematical business as well. Specified a secret message, a key established the connection with the sequence to the ciphertext. The key we use for a special cryptosystem has worth so whenever this key used to ciphertext, always lets the encrypted communication to be decrypted and always doing reverse like encrypt the plaintext. In ancient era because calculation was very hard so they prefer to use not lengthy keys in respect of bits but on the other hand its safe to use longer key. Communications also one can encrypt in n-bit blocks. It is true that the longer a key is, more difficult for one to break the encrypted message. Encryptions consist of two categories. Private Key or Symmetric Key Encryption Public Key or Asymmetric Key Encryption Private Key / Symmetric Key Encryption This was thousands of years ago when Julian Caesar used this scheme to send his communication to his military. He used very simple key based classic cryptographic algorithm in which he just shifted each letter with preplanned key number 4. In his algorithm key varies so thats why we cannot guess what number he will use next. Lets take said number 4 which means â€Å"A† will swap with â€Å"D† and â€Å"B† will swap with â€Å"G† and so on â€Å"X† will swap with â€Å"A† etc. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC The same letter changing technique was useful to small case correspondence and also covering around the letters as well. (S. Tewksbury). Cryptography history is very old so we can divide it in to two categories. Classic era Cryptography Computer era Cryptography In classic era there was no computer or any electronic machine to solve this problem so people were used pen and paper to unreveal the truth of letters. Julian Caesar technique is classic era practice. Until WWII all cryptography techniques are none as classic era cryptography. After WWII development of machine made cryptography life very complex and that time was very easy to break all classic time encryptions mostly called key based techniques. Key word was very important in these practices and because of the key it was very easy to break through encryption algorithm. ROT13 is the best practice of encryption algorithm which we know its famous name Caesar cipher and this is extension of Julian Caesar scheme. The most useful technique was ROT13 in which they used fix key 13 to encrypt the letters. This algorithm was very famous in the beginning of computer era and anyone wants to use ROT13 scheme, both side parties must use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the code. This key calle d secret key. The development of the machine set a stander in respect of key codes and then everyone prepared a code book to share as a key code book. For example in ROT13 simply they rotate the letters by 13 places. Application of this scheme is very easy like Julius Caesar technique where he swapped letters with fix key 4 and now in ROT13 with key 13 and wrapping around like â€Å"a† become â€Å"n† and â€Å"m† become â€Å"z† and wrapping continue if necessary but the problem was user can play only English alphabet. The beauty of this technique was it made its function its own inverse like for any text x we can write its function mathematically inverse of ROT13(x) or ROT13 (ROT13(x)) where x is belong to a character which one wants to encrypt. This characteristic furthermore called an involution in arithmetic and a give-and-take code in cryptography. This scheme work as below ABCDEFGHIJKLM ↔ abcdefghijklm NOPQRSTUVWXYZ ↔ nopqrstuvwxyz In this scheme problem was again if someone steel or rob your data then it is very easy to decode it. This is not reasonable cryptographic proposal even though its known as secret key cryptosystem. If we observe closely the ROT13 is partially homomorphic particularly with respect to the concatenation function because it has a reciprocal property. Lets write a function to prove its homomorphic property using secret key 13, in this function we encrypt the text using said algorithm and we will add the encrypted text to see its homomorphic property and then finally decrypt the result. Java ROT13 Code. import java.util.*; public class ROT13 { static int x,y,n,fx,l,m; public static void main(String[] args) { Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in); System.out.println(Enter your text); String t = sc.nextLine(); int j=0; int key=13; for (int i=0; i { char ch3 = t.charAt(j); if (ch3 >= a ch3 else if (ch3 >= n ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 System.out.print(ch3); j++; }}} OUTPUT Enter your text HelloWorld UryybJbeyq The above algorithm is very uncomplicated algorithm to illustrate how ROT13 scheme works and in above output â€Å"Uryyb Jbeyq† is encrypted cipher formed with above algorithm. To check its homomorphic property now anyone can break this cipher text and then apply a concatenation (addition operator) to this text. After getting a new text anyone can apply ROT13 algorithm to decode it to see if he/she is getting the original text. import java.util.*; public class ROT13 { static int x,y,n,fx,l,m; public static void main(String[] args) { Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in); System.out.println(Enter yout text); String t = sc.nextLine(); int j=0; int key=13; for (int i=0; i { char ch3 = t.charAt(j); if (ch3 >= a ch3 else if (ch3 >= n ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 System.out.print(ch3); j++; } System.out.println(); System.out.println(Enter yout 2nd text); String t1 = sc.nextLine(); int j1=0; int key1=13; for (int i1=0; i1 { char ch3 = t1.charAt(j1); if (ch3 >= a ch3 else if (ch3 >= n ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 System.out.print(ch3); j1++; } System.out.println(); System.out.println(Enter the 1st encrypted result=); String a=sc.nextLine(); System.out.println(); System.out.println(Enter the 2st encrypted result=); String a1=sc.nextLine(); String con = a+a1; System.out.print(con); System.out.println(); int j2=0; int key2=13; for (int i2=0; i2 { char ch3 = con.charAt(j2); if (ch3 >= a ch3 else if (ch3 >= n ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 else if (ch3 >= A ch3 System.out.print(ch3); j2++; }}} OUTPUT Enter the 1st encrypted result=Uryyb Enter the 2st encrypted result=Jbeyq UryybJbeyq HelloWorld Explanation of Output Text a = Encrypt (13, Hello); a = Uryyb Text b = Encrypt (13, World); b = Jbeyq Text c = Concat (a,b); c = UryybJbeyq Text d = Decrypt(13, c); d = HelloWorld As we can see clearly that we used an addition (concat) property to encrypt the text but after this we got the same result as we got without using concat. This property demonstrates that ROT13 is partially homomorphic scheme with respect of addition. The problem start with this technique when machine came in to being and it was easy to break secret code and even drawback of this scheme was numbers because user only were to able to encrypt alphabetic. Then gradually, ROT47 new scheme introduced and this scheme was derived from ROT13 as-well. Inside this scheme there was a big border for its users so now they were able to play with numbers and special characters. ROT47 exercise a larger alphabet, resulting from a regularcharacter programmingwell-known asAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). The ASCII is a 7-bit code to correspond to English alphabet structure and these codes are in practice to symbolize data which includes numbers used in central processing unit, interactions technology and additional associated mechanism. The first publication of this standard code was in 1967 then afterward restructured and produced as â€Å"ANSI X3.4-1968†, at that time as â€Å"ANSI X3.4-1977† and at last as â€Å"ANSI X3.4-1986†. It is given that, it is a seven-bit code and it preserves the largest part symbolizing 128 characters. It presently characterize 95 printable characters together with 26 upper-case letters (A to Z), 26 lower-case letters (a to z), 10 numbers (0 to 9) and 33 special characters as well as arithmetic signs, punctuation marks and space character. . (Maini A K, 2007) However ROT13 introduced with new values of its alphabets separately both capital and smaller. Unlike ROT13, ROT47 was also not able to protect your text at all. This scheme is also having homomorphic property like addition. If closely observe the both scheme then we will be able to see that there is only little difference in both schemes. Both working pattern is same, both dealing with alphabets but ROT47 got advantage because this scheme deal with numbers and individual characters. In this method ASCII cipher connect to trade letters or numbers during encryption/decryption. Knowledge of ASCII codes to one lead to revel the facts. So here this scheme becomes the same like ROT13, so failure of this scheme once again involvement of the secret key. Is Symmetric Key Encryption Secure? ROT13 encryption scheme is not secured at all because the code of this scheme you can decode very easy. This was the disadvantage of this scheme. The reason we encrypt our transcript is to make it protected from illegitimate access however this scheme only consist of 26 characters which is very simple to decipher even from side to side a common person who have an access to the written text. For example: Anyone wishes to encrypt â€Å"atotaa†, after that the cipher we will achieve â€Å"ngbgnn† which is very effortless to work out through repetition of â€Å"a g†. ROT47 was novel encryption scheme derived from ROT13and also another example of symmetric key encryption but bit difficult. In ROT47 moving the basic letter swiftly like ROT13 with given substitute of ASCII. In this scheme one can take care of numbers and many other special characters as a substitute of the basic 26 letters however awareness of ASCII codes can show the way to one to search out the facts. Consequently, at this point this scheme turn into insecure category like ROT13, so failure of this scheme was once again its own typical contribution of the ASCII codes. Public Key or Asymmetric Key Encryption An important contribution in the peak field that time named â€Å"public-key cryptography† fulfilled by Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman and Ralph Merkle in 1976 when they introduce an elegant cryptosystem for a public-key. The major difference as compare to prior scheme was one extra key named as public key. The public key assume to be used for encryption and then private key will use to decryption. Cryptography has been a derivative security entirety once a secure channel exists along which keys can be transmitted, the security can be extended to other channels of higher bandwidth or smaller delay by encrypting the messages sent on them. The effect has been to limit the use of cryptography to communications among people who have made prior preparation for cryptographic security. (W Diffie and M Hellman, 1976) ABOVE NOT COMPLETE YET RSA respected the idea of Diffie et al and in 1978 they introduced first public key algorithm in public at MIT byRon Rivest,Adi Shamir, andLeonard Adleman. They illustrate what is predetermined by a trapdoor cipher, but how do you construct one? One usually used of the secret message of this type is called RSA encryption, wherever RSA are the initials of three initiators which are Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman. It is based on the idea below; it is simply multiply numbers together, particularly with the help of computers reason, factorization of this numbers could be difficult. To get them, one needs to factor N, which seems to be an extremely complex problem. But exactly how is N used to encode a message, and how are p and q used to decode it? Below is presented a complete example, although there will be used minute prime numbers so it is easy to follow the arithmetic. Actually in RSA encryption scheme they used very big prime numbers. As per them it makes scheme more secure because in their algorithm they need to factorize the number to get the result. If someone using small number then its easy to factorize the number but it is not the same with big number. Therefore, they in their algorithm they used key size 768-bit for ordinary use and they suggest 1024-bit key size for commercial use but for highly important information key size should be double (2048-bit) as compare to business key size just for mind satisfaction regarding security threat. RSA advised to one and all concerning their scheme that how scheme work to get own encryption and decryption key if any want using their method. First step decide two separate prime numbers like p, q. Later than multiply integers pq and make n = pq public. Exposing n in public will help one to hide original integers like q q and now it will be very difficult for illegitimate person to find original integers p q because factorization will be very hard for big prime numbers. This achievement will help to hide the value of multiplicative inverse d and the way derived from co-prime e. Choosing big integer d but d must comparatively prime with φ((p-1).(q-1)) and must fulfill the condition of greater common devisor gcd (d, (p-1)(q-1)). Finally one can compute the integer e â€Å"1 Mathematically Implementation of RSA algorithm RSA algorithm steps below Two prime integers p=61 and q=53 Multiply both prime integers n = pq = 61.53=3233. The value of n afterward used as modulus for public and private key. Calculate φ(n) = (p-1).(q-1) = 3120. Where φ is Eulers totient function. For the value of e = 17 select any integer from 1 One can conclude d = e-1 mod φ(n). The value of d = 2753 will be using in private key exponent so supervision of this key is essential. Extended Euclidean algorithm helps to determine the d. Thepublic keywill be (n= 3233,e= 17) and for text m the encryption function is m17 mod φ(n). Theprivate keyis (n= 3233,d= 2753) and for the encrypted text c decryption function will be cd mod φ(n). For example: Encryptm= 65, we compute c= 6517(mod 3233) = 2790. For decryptc= 2790, we calculate m= 27902753(mod 3233) = 65. Using the above boring however easy for a computer to calculate, One can decode others message and obtain the original message m = 65. Java Code for RSA Algorithm: public class RSACode { static long x,y,n,fx,l,m; static int p,q,e,tn; public static void main(String[] args) { Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in); System.out.println(Please enter ist prime no P); p =sc.nextInt(); System.out.println(Please enter 2nd prime no q); q =sc.nextInt(); n=p*q; System.out.println(p*q = n +n); //Totient of n tn=(p-1)*(q-1); System.out.println(Totation of tn(pq) = +tn); int k=tn; for (int i=1; i { int fi= (int)(Math.pow(2, i)+1); l=fi; while (tn % fi !=0) { int r = (tn % fi); tn = fi; fi = r; } if (fi==1) System.out.println(GCD Of+[+k+,+l+] is+fi+Recommended for you); } System.out.println(So please use +l+ as e); System.out.println(Enter number to exponent e); e=sc.nextInt(); for (int d=1;d if ((e*d)%k==1) System.out.println(The value of e^-1 mod n= d ==+d); System.out.println(Enter the above valu of d); int d1=sc.nextInt(); System.out.println(Enter number to encrypt); m=sc.nextInt(); //encryption function is c = (m ^ e)/n; double encryption = (Math.pow(m, e)% n); System.out.println(encryption Key =+ encryption); System.out.println(The value of d= e^-1 mod n ==+d1); double decrypt = (Math.pow(encryption, d1) % n); System.out.println(encryption +to decryption is = + decrypt); OUT PUT Please enter ist prime no P 5 Please enter 2nd prime no q 7 p*q = n 35 Totation of tn(pq) = 24 GCD Of[24,5] is1Recommended for you GCD Of[24,9] is1Recommended for you So please use 9 as e Enter number to exponent e 5 The value of e-1 mod n= d ==5 Enter the above value of d 5 Enter number to encrypt 9 encryption Key =4.0 The value of d= e-1 mod n ==5 4.0to decryption is =9.0 The above java code works fine on small prime integers with small exponential power and small value of d (multiplicative inverse). OUT PUT Please enter ist prime no P 61 Please enter 2nd prime no q 53 p*q = n 3233 Totation of tn(pq) = 3120 GCD Of[3120,17] is1Recommended for you So please use 17 as e Enter number to exponent e 17 The value of e-1 mod n= d ==2753 Enter the above value of d 2753 Enter number to encrypt 65 encryption Key =887.0 The value of d= e-1 mod n ==2753 887.0to decryption is =NaN The same java code work perfect on big numbers but there you need different data types to adjust the output value the error NaN means data type mismatch. Practically Implementation An RSA operation whether encrypting, decrypting, signing, or verifying is fundamentally a modular exponentiation. This computation is executed with a sequence of modular multiplications. In practical uses, it is general to select a small public exponent for the public key. In reality, entire group of users preserve to use the matching public exponent, every one through a different modulus. However there are few boundaries on the prime factors of the modulus when the public exponent is set. For the reason of this it creates encryption more rapidly than decryption and verification quicker than signing. Through the typical modular power algorithms used to put into practice the RSA algorithm, public-key operations takeO(k2) steps, private-key operations take O(k3) steps, and key generation takesO(k4) steps, wherekis the number of bits in the modulus. (RSA 2010) Is RSA Work Secure? This scheme is not fully secure on the basses of following attacks Elementary attack Low private exponent attack Low private exponent attack Implementation attack Boneh et al Homomorphic Encryption (Boneh D, 1999) examined the RSA cryptosystem, was original exposed in the 1977-1978 topic of â€Å"Scientific American†. The cryptosystem is mainly generally in practice for offering confidentiality and certification validity of digital data. In those days RSA was positioned in many big business organizations. It is used by web servers and browsers to safe web transfer, it is used to make sure confidentiality and legitimacy of correspondence, it is used to safe remote login phase, and it is at the heart of electronic credit-card payment method. However, RSA is commonly take part in meanings anywhere safety of digital data is on risk. In view of the fact of first publication, the RSA scheme evaluates meant for weakness through a lot of examiners. However since 1977 to 1999, examiner have direct to a many interesting attacks but not any of them is critical. They typically demonstrate the risk of offensive use of RSA. Definitely, protected execution of RSA is a nontrivial job. Twenty years of research into inverting the RSA service created various perceptive attacks, other than no shocking attack has ever been discovered. The attacks exposed so far mostly demonstrate the drawbacks which one can avoid once applying RSA. Currently comes into view that correct applications can offer assurance to afford protection in the electronic globe. Openattacks on RSA scheme: Chosen chipper attack is very famous in cryptography in it attacker gathered information in pieces and then process it. This attack claimed against RSA in 1998 by Y. Desmedt and A. M. Odlyzko. According to RSA choose two prime numbers to calculate n then use φ(n) for modulus in encryption and decryption but if any enemy used brute force attack on their public key (N, e) to find the factorization and as well as their φ(n). On the other hand if we assume that only big prime number only allowed in RSA then it will affect the speed of the scheme because performance depend on n-bit key. While encrypting with not big encryption supporter e= 3 and small values of them like m Another attack was if sender send a plain clear message to e or more beneficiary after encrypted and the recipients distribute the similar exponente, except differentintegers p,q, andn, in that case it is simple to decode the plaintext using theChinese remainder theorem.Hà ¥stadJ become aware of that, this attack is achievable still if the plaintexts are not identical, however the attacker recognize a linear relation among them.Afterward Don Coppersmith enhanced this attack which was low exponent. RSA has the property that the multiplication of two encrypted text is the same to the encryption of the product of the individual plaintexts. That isâ€Å"† since of this multiplicative property achosen ciphertext attackis possible. For example an attacker, who needs to identify the decryption of a ciphertextc=me(modn)possibly will request the owner of the private key to decrypt an innocent appearing ciphertextc =re c (modn)for random rselected by the attacker. For the reason that of the multipli

The Western Subjectivity Thought :: Philosophy Papers

The Western Subjectivity Thought Since modern times subjectivity thought has been one of the fundamental contents and the significant achievements of western philosophy. It is faced with many difficulties in its development process and has been declared to "have died", but I think that it indeed still has bright prospects of development. 1. Historical Development of Western Subjectivity Thought The word "subject" comes from the Latin word " subjectum ", which means something in front, or something constituting the foundations of other things. In Greek philosophy, at least in Aristotle's philosophy, "subject" is not a philosophical category which belongs specially to human being or a person, but something which is opposite to attribute or contingency, and is opposite to predicate of a sentence. Such a subject is also a substance in Aristotle's philosophy. For Aristotle, Socrates is a subject, a dog or a stone also is a subject. Up to Descartes' age, the conception of subject as a philosophy category belonging to human being does not project over the general conception of substance. In Descartes' philosophy, what is called subject means ego, soul or mind. Ego, soul or mind, like a material body, is a kind of substance, but is different from the latter in essence. The essence of material substance is extension, whereas the essence of ego, soul or mind is thinking. Ego is not only different from the material substance in essence, but also does not come from the latter. What does he call "I think, therefore I am" does mean that. It clearly puts forward the subjectivity question of human being. However because Descartes puts forward his theory of the subjectivity of human being within the framework of his mind-body dualism, his conception of the subjectivity of human being as such can not possibly contain any further and deeper intention. They are Leibniz, Kant and Husserl and so on who endow it some further and deeper intention. The monadology of Leibniz not only calls monad as "soul" or "entelechy", and considers the perceptive activity as the essential content of a monad, but also clearly declares that a manod is a center of metaphysical force, it has no any windows but intrinsically possesses a kind of appetition force which promotes the transition of a monad from the state of less clear perception to the state of clearer perception , and it is a mirror of the whole universe. All of these enable the ego (the subject) in Descartes' philosophy to get a kind of new active quality.

Pearl Harbor: Components, Causes, Events, Significance and Intelligence Failure

The Pearl Harbor incident of 7 December, 1941, was a very important episode in the history of international affairs. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor dragged the United States into the Second World War and it surely changed the trend of the war. So long United States remained aloof from the War due to its avowed policy of isolation from European affairs. But the Pearl Harbor crisis directly fell upon it and naturally, as retaliation, the United States waged war against Japan. Due to this event, the War which broke out in 3 September, 1939, took a Global shape.Moreover, before the Pearl Harbor incident, it was in favor of the Axis powers. But the American involvement rapidly changed the tide and ultimately the United States and its Allis came out victorious. Tension between Japan and the United States It is a coordinal truth that the United States raised a strong protest against the Manchurian adventure of Japan and former also refused to accord official recognition to Manchukuo. T he United States made it crystal clear that they would never diverge from their treaty rights and not recognize any change in China affected by unilateral action of Japan.The Japanese Government, in turned also resented this attitude of the United States; resultantly the tension gradually evoked, and though the intensity rose from time to time, it began to mount at a steady base. It future reaches up the ladder in 1937 when Japan began her full scale invention in China. In short the Government of the United States which had all along stood for the principle of ‘Open Door’ involving equality of opportunity could hardly be accepted to view it complacency Japan’s attempt to close that door by an imperialistic attitude disguised under the schemes of ‘new order’ and ‘co-prosperity sphere’.Thus when Japan began her full scale invention in 1937, American opinion branded Japan as a wonton aggressor against China. All though the United States ref used to ratify the League of Nations due to some constitutional reasons, but it co-operated with the later in its efforts to restrain Japan and participated in Brussels conference of 1937, which was meant to minimize the difference between Japan and China. But the Japanese government totally repudiated the views of the Brussels conference and definitely announced that they would not, by means, tolerate any shorts of interference by third party regarding in the issue of China and Japan.As soon as the Second World War broke out the positions of Britain, France and Holland on their extra colonial possessions in East Asia became weak. Hence, at that time, Japan grabbed the opportunity to builds its own hold in Eastern Asia. Japan sought to strengthen their positions through diplomatic preparations. In the mean time they had already joined Germany and Italy in the anti-communist impact. In the year 1940 Japan signed a treaty of military alliance with these two powers. According to this t reaty, these powers were mutually independent to one another, in terms of both military and economic affairs.The treaty further acknowledged that, in any one of these three countries were attacked by a power not yet involved in the European war or the Sino Japanese conflict; they would unitedly face the invader. Clearly, this treaty was a serious warning to the United States to remain in a neutral position. Another major diplomatic stamps led by Japan was their foreign minister, Matsouka, to Berlin in order to study the European situation. But actually the real purpose was to conclude an agreement with Russia. During his tour to Russia, Matsouka visited Moscow and entered into a neutrality pact with Soviet Union.By this pact both the powers agreed to respect each other’s territorial integrity and to remain in a neutral position if either were attacked by a third power. Thus, with the finalization of all her diplomatic arrangement with Russia, Germany and Italy, Japan felt her self encouraged to push on her plans in the Far East. Due to all search diplomatic attempts made by Japan to impose their hegemony. On the Far East, the United States, resultantly, stiffen her attitude towards Japan. When Japan joined the Rome-Berlin Axis, then in the year 1940 United States imposed an embargo on the export of scrap-iron and petroleum to Japan.But Washington refused to recognize the puppet government set up by Japan at Nan king in the year 1940 and instead extended financial credit to Chiang Kai-shek’s regime. But when the weak Vichy government of France gave permission to Japan for occupying Indo-China and to use its airfields, then in 1941 the United States captured Japanese goods and thus, trade with Japan was made more difficult and made the later very angry. At that time the United States was the only power, who lay across the path of their imperialistic designs.That time Great Britain faced life and death struggle with Germany, and France and Netherland s were strongly dominated by Hitler. None of these powers were in the position to defend their colonial possession in East Asia. Hence the temptation to size them was very strong for Japan. But Japan faced only obstacle from the United States. So they determined to overcome from this obstacle. The government of Tojo sent a special envoy to the United States for a peaceful understanding settlement. But when the negotiation had just begun the Japanese dropped bombs on American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7th December, 1941.America suffered a massive loss for this incident. Similarly they bombed in Singapore, Guam and the strategic centers of the Philippines and announced war with the United States and Britain. On the following day the United States, Britain and the Netherlands East Indies declared war on Japan. The European war thus developed into global conflict. International effect – Success of Japan The Japanese attack upon Pearl Harbor precipitated the United States into active belligerency and this inaugurated the Pacific phase of the Second World War. The initial success of Japanese was phenomenal.Simultaneously with their attack on Pearl Harbor the Japanese struck at the American base Guam and Wake and captured the islands. Next they took Hong Kong from the British and seized the capital of Sarawak, a British protectorate in Borneo. They sank two big British battleships, Prince of Wales and Repulse off the eastern coast of Malaya. Then they moved rapidly down the Malaya peninsula, slashing through impassable jungles, and received the unconditional surrender of Singapore with its impregnable naval base in the year of 1942. The Netherlands East Indies were attacked at various points.British and American ships, as well as Australian troops were rushed to the help of the Dutch forces. But all these forces were scattered by the Japanese after a brief fighting. In the Philippines the local forces, helped by the Americans, offered a gallant resistance for about four months. However, all the resistance collapsed with the capture of island of Corregidor by the Japanese in May 1942. About this time, the Japanese had made themselves masters of Burma. Thailand aligned herself with the Japanese and, although theoretically independent, felt the heavy hand of her powerful ally.In the North Pacific, Japan had established footholds in the Aleutian Islands and in the south west, they had seized a considerable portion of New Guinea and the Solomon Island. Thus, within six months after their attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese had wiped out the colonial possessions of the British and the Dutch in the far east and the south eastern Asia up to the boarders of India and had made themselves masters of the American outputs in the Western Pacific and the of the Philippines and American protà ©gà ©. It was an amazing record of victory at that time.Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Japan had been demanding for sometime past of a ‘new orde r in East Asia’ as a sort of justification for her invasion of China. Japan conquered and brought under her control practically the whole of south eastern Asia. They expanded their conquest and declared their intention of setting up a ‘Greater Asia co-prosperity sphere’. Japanese recent success against the western powers made them enable to assume the role of liberators of the people of East Asia from the white man’s yoke.They professed that their object was to eliminate the Anglo-American imperialism and to substitute in its place a self-sufficient economic system in which all the people would enjoy prosperity in common. The Greater East Asia was to be welded together into an economic whole in which Japan Manchukuo and parts of China would be the industrial centers and other countries, within the spheres, had to co-operate with them by providing raw materials. In this way, under Japanese direction, trade and commerce would flourish to the benefit of all t he countries concerned.In the areas which they liberated from foreign rule, the Japanese set up independent Governments, but took care to select such collaborators as would govern along the lines laid down by them. In the name of economic development, they rather exploited the occupied regions for their own benefit instead than that of the conquered peoples. They posed as liberators, but in fact, they wanted to remain as conquerors and exploiters and sought to disguise their intention by setting up a pattern of rule they had already oven in Manchuria and in occupied China. Causes of Japan’s Defeat Japan had begun well and achieved a series of astonishing success.But the strain of carrying on a far flung war began to tell upon her. As a matter of fact, she did not possess the reserves of men and material to meet the counter-attack of the power which she had deliberately provoked. The United States with her enormous resources in men, money and material produced new ships, aero planes, guns and other arms and ammunitions of war in almost unlimited number and that with a rapidity which Japan could not anticipate. Hence in spite of the priority given to the war in Europe, is the use of American men and materials, the United States could quickly bring sufficient armed might to bear on the Japanese.Besides, the continued resistance of China was a serious drain of Japan’s men and money. It virtually handicapped her war efforts in other quarters and gave the Allies the much needed berathing spell. The first major attack on Japanese positions in the Pacific was made by the United States in 1942. In that year, a concentration on of the Japanese shipping was met by a force of American Aircraft under the command General McArthur of the North East Coast of Australia in the Coral Sea. In a six-day battle, the Japanese were defeated and turned back.Thereafter followed the naval battle of Midway in which the Japanese suffered heavy loss. This victory prevented th e extension of Japanese power towards the South East Pacific. These were in the main defensive operations. But in August 1942, the United States took first step towards recovering the lost territories by an attempt to clear the Japanese forces out of the Solomon Island in South West Pacific. The Allied strategy was to capture the Japanese bases in that region and then to proceed North on the route to Tokyo.By severe amphibious warfare, the Americans secured a foothold on Gaudal Cannel, a strong Japanese airbase in the Solomon’s. This was the beginning of the Island-hoping strategy by which the Japanese outputs were conquered and converted into Allied bases, and then used as springboards for further attacks and progress towards Japan. By the spring of 1944, the Gilbert and Marshall Islands were captured from the Japanese and these successes opened the way to Saipan and Tinian in the Marians. These advances were made at a heavy cost for Japanese, fortified in pill-boxes and pro tected by mines, greeted the invaders with intense cross-fires.The advance through the Marians prepared the way for McArthur’s re-conquest of the Philippines. His landing on the island of Leyte was fiercely contested by the Japanese. The Japanese fleets, which sought to intercept the landing, suffered a disasters defeat in the battle for the control of the Leyte-Gulf in October 1944. This battle, known as the Second Battle of the Philippine Sea, shattered the moral power of Japan. Henceforth, the Japanese wave continued to recede. The Philippines fell in July 1945. At the same time, island-hoping of the Allies continued.They stormed low Jima, one of the Bonnin Island and less than eight hundred miles from Tokyo, after a heavy aerial bombardment which lasted without intermission for two months. The next target was Okinawa, one of the islands in the Rqu kyu group, and a ‘door step’ of Japan. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battle of the war. The Japanese casua lties were very heavy, but they made effective use of ‘suicide plans’ and hit from the air about two fifty enemy vessels of the classes including battleships and cruisers and took a heavy toll of American lives.By July 1945, an Anglo-American squadron was able to sail along the Japanese coast and dropped shells of Honshu. At the same time, the fighting air ships, the B 29s, hurled death and destruction on the important cities of Japan which, thus, was rapidly nearing her doom. In July 1945, the representatives of the Allied powers (Great Britain, American, China and Russia) met in a conference at Potsdam and called upon the Japanese Government â€Å"to proclaim the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces, and to provide proper and adequate assurance of good faith in such actions.The alternative for Japan was prompt and utter destruction†. The Japanese ignored the ultimatum and continued the loosing fight. Thereupon, on August 6, the Americans dropped an Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima which wiped out more than half of the city – Hiroshima had ceased to exist. Three days after, i. e. on August 9, a second and more destructive Atomic Bombardment destroyed the city of Nagasaki, a ship building port and industrial center. On the following day, the Japanese Government sued the peace and Emperor Hirohito acquiesced in unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945. The Japanese dream of Empire suddenly vanished in the thin air† (Shankar). Some questions But some questioned remain to be unanswered. First, why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor? Secondly, why did America join the war against Japan? Was not an ultimatum sufficient for the purpose? Was the Pearl Harbor incident real reason for the American involvement in Second World War? It is stark reality that the Paris Peace Conference had failed to satisfy the colonial ambition of both Italy and Japan. The spoils of colonial expansion were shared by Britain, France and America (Clement , C. ).Naturally it joined Italy and Germany and formed the Axis-Alliance for clearing a ‘New Order’. Soon it began to expand towards China and established the puppet government. It surely embitters its relations with America which too had some interests there. Moreover, America, had in the meantime occupied a vast area in the Pacific and Japan’s ambitions in the East was evidently against the American policy. For all these reasons, a confrontation was inevitable. But both of them remained passive onlookers at the first stage of the war. America, of course, had some sympathy for the Allies.But as the Monroe-Doctrine prevented it from taking a part in the League of Nations and similarly discouraged to be involved it in the post-war European politics and the war of 1939 (Mowat, R. B). But it was against the Axis power, because it feared that democracy might face a crisis if these powers won the war. One juncture president Roosevelt even asked the ‘Dictatorsâ €™ to assure that they would not commit any aggression against 25 nations ranging from Finland to Iran (Sen, A). But as the ‘phony war’ was ensuring the Axis victory in an electric speed, America became very much anxious about the future.In order to help the Allies, it even changed its policy of ‘catch and carry’, and switched over to that of ‘lend and lease’. He even informed Mr. Churchill that he would be gradually provocative in spite of the avowed policy of neutrality. It is true that the Congress of America had so long kept in outside the European politics, because it was satisfied with the territorial settlement much in Europe (Tandon, M. P. ). But the rapid failure of the Allies to cope with the military brilliance of the Axis powers convinced America that its interference was an avoidable necessity.Of course, Japan was guilty of an unprovoked attack on it. But when Japan felt that Italy was reaping the harvest and Germany was breaki ng up the Allied-empire like a castle of cards, it could not sit idly any more. On December 7, 1941, its aim for its suddenly attacked Pearl Harbor and, there, its war with America began on that day. It was surely a case of Japanese hypocrisies because it did it, â€Å"†¦ while its diplomats were smilingly discussing minor difficulties in Washington† (Wells, H. G. ). The American fleet was idling and unprepared and Japan did not declare a war. Naturally, America answered in a language of arms.Intelligence Crisis According to some historians, the Pearl Harbor affair was the outcome of an intelligence-failure on the part of America. Similarly, in spite of initial success, Japan pathetically lost the war mainly because of its failure in the intelligence operations. To begin with, the Pearl Harbor affair is regarded as the worst case of American military intelligence. First, for a long time, the relationship between the United States and Japan was fast-deteriorating, but the American naval intelligence did not even have the minimum amount of strategic or tactical speculation about it.It simply thought that, Japan might attack Thailand at that time. As Philippines were the strong hold in the Pacific, the American intelligence apprehended that Japan might launch an attack on that island. In short, Pearl Harbor was out of American calculation of any probable Japanese aggression. Secondly, another problem was that America lacked Human intelligence on Japan. America had a few geisha girls on the payroll, but no agents in the Japanese Elite or military hierarchy. This is another reason for the American intelligence problems regarding any probable Japanese attack in the Harbor.Thirdly, America came out successful in breaking the Japanese code, but what they were really intercepting was some diplomatic and espionage-information, nothing off the nature of Japanese military plans or war-targets. Japan also tactfully changed their codes some days before the Pearl Harbor affair and the American intelligence failed to cope with it. The American fleets stationed at the Harbor to protect it, were too weak to face the Japanese heavy naval power. These fleets were inferior in quality and, in such case, a combat with the Japanese navy would have been a mere suicidal attempt.These fleets were neither capable of countering a air-attack nor a naval attack. Clearly, the American intelligence had least expectations for any attack on the Pearl Harbor. On Japan’s part, similarly, there were some intelligence failures. The Japanese very tactfully attacked Pearl Harbor and it was a grand success for the former. But due to lack of proper intelligence service, it could not keep up the trend of its initial victory. First, its intelligence actually underestimated the American potentiality in the economic and military affairs.Economically, America was the richest country of the world and its industrial development was enough to supply the war materials w hich were enough to bring Japan under control. Moreover, as war started, America stopped all exports to Japan, particularly iron and steel, which materially affected Japan’s war preparations. Thus, it was a dismal failure of Japanese intelligence. Secondly, the Japanese also failed to hit the strategic targets of America. Particularly oil-depots, large ammunitions depots etc remained outside the Japanese military target.Japanese intelligence actually failed to supply its air force the correct information regarding the important places which, militarily were to be regarded as of basic importance for America. Finally, another fatal flaw of the Japanese intelligence service was that it failed to supply the correct information to the military department about the public moral which was galvanized during the war. The people so long remained isolated from European affairs and perhaps, the Japanese intelligence thought that such peace-loving people could hardly fight against such a military debacle.But after the initial shock of Pearl Harbor, both the military and the ordinary people united like a solid phalanx which, ultimately brought out American victory over Japan. Was it really an Intelligence Failure? But one point is yet to be discussed with all seriousness. Was the Pearl harbor-crisis an outcome of the failure of American Intelligence Service? As Clyde P. H. observes, â€Å"Responsibility for the Pearl Harbor disaster presents a complex problem with which historians will wrestle for years to come (Clyde, 614). It is really a very complex question on which the historians have quarreled with one another.It is true that the growing power of Hitler convinced the Americans that their own security was linked up with the war fortunes of the Allied powers and that Hitler, in full of control of European continent, would precede to the conquest of America. As Keswani K. B. points out, â€Å"On September 16, 1940, Congress passed the Compulsory Military Service and Training Law whereby conscription was introduced for the first time in the history of the country† (Saha). Thus, it is evident that, America was preparing for the impending war. But, surely, it was seeking for an excuse.When Japan, the Asiatic ally of Hitler, bombards Pearl Harbor, America exactly found an opportunity to join the war. Whether it was a failure of intelligence service or not, is obviously a crucial question. As Clyde points out, by July 1946, there had already been eight official investigations – yet it seemed that the full story had not been revealed. The earliest investigation, made by the then secretary of the Navy, Frank Knox and Associate Supreme Court Justice, Owen Roberts, laid the major responsibility on the Pearl Harbor commanders, Admiral Husband, S. Kimmel and General Walter C.Short. But later investigations, including that of a joint Congressional Committee, laid less blame on the commanders and more upon departments and personalities in the Government at Washington. Whatever the ultimate verdict of history may be, the Pearl Harbor attack was of tremendous importance not merely as a military catastrophe, but also in its political and intelligence implications. Most probably, it was not a matter of failure in the intelligence service. There are both immediate and long range reasons suggesting that the attack should have been anticipated.J. C. Grew, the American Ambassador at Japan, had warned the State Department, eleven months in advance that if war came, Japan might open hostilities with an attack on Pearl Harbor. From September onwards, intercepted Japanese messages revealed a sharp interest in the location of ships at Pearl Harbor. Grew had also given repeated warning that the Japanese might depend on surprise attack at several points – particularly at Pearl Harbor. Now, it is a question, why did the American Government not take sufficient measures in order to prevent such a naval onslaught.It is to be rem embered that the casualties were as staggering as the damage of the fleet – 2343 dead, 1272 wounded and 960 missing. At least nineteen ships were totally wrecked by the Japanese attack. The reason of this catastrophe is perhaps not the failure of the intelligence service – it was probably an outcome of a deliberate policy of American Government. Conclusion History has not as yet uncovered the full explanation of Pearl Episode. So theories and hypothesis were abundant. Most probably, America was awaiting an opportunity to join the war.When the Pearl Harbor incident took place, President Roosevelt took the opportunity to convince the Congress and the American people that a war with Japan was inevitable. So, some historians like Clyde, believed that it was planned and plotted by the American Government in order to find out a scope to join the war. In this way, the President surmounted the obstacle raised by the Monroe Doctrine in joining the European politics and discardi ng the doctrine of isolation from international affairs.

American Revolution the war, the article of confederation and the constitution

The paper discuses the United States of America road to self governance from hands of British colonialism. First it looks on the war between the United States America and Britain. The war took place in late 18th century when the thirteen states of America colonialist joined forces to overthrow the British emperor. Although the states militiamen were untrained and used simple weapons, they were determined to topple down Britain from America. The paper also focuses on how the militiamen though inexperienced in war, caused sleepless night to the British army.With time the war seemed unending until reached a point where a deal had to be reached to end the war. The war was ended with a deal being reached between the United States of America and the Britain. A Paris treaty signed in France between the parties in war ended the stalemate. The article of confederation is looked into. This document (the articles of confederation), outlined the rules governing the operations of the united thirt een states. The article outlined the powers of the confederation government and how the states had to relate to each other.The strengths and weakness of the article is outlined in the paper. Article of confederation was replaced by constitution soon after America attained her independence. At the end the paper compares the American Revolution with other world revolutions such as, French revolution, the Russian and the Iranian revolutions. The British army and the militiamen During the last half of 18th century, the thirteen colonies of North America overthrew the governance of British emperor and merged to become the nation of the â€Å"United States of America†.The colonies regrouped to form one self governing state that fought with British army. Americans lacked trained army and each group of the colonies relied on militia groups which had simple arms and slight knowledge on fighting for defense. Although, this militia had no fighting skills, their high number gave them an advantage over the few British soldiers in the battle fields. â€Å"In 1775, America established a regular continental army to give more support to the militia in battles. The British army was about 36,000 men, but within the course of war, Britain hired more soldiers from Germany† (Savas, 2006).The combined army was huge, but its strength was weakened by the virtue of being spread across large regions of Canada and Florida. The revolutionary war on North America started when the commander in charge of British army sent his men to seize ammunition held by the militiamen in Massachusetts. On arrival, they found that the Minutemen (a group of men from the colonial militia) had been alerted of unexpected visit by the British army. This group of militia (minutemen) consisted of young and more mobile men who were ready to fight British army any minute they are called to do so.A battle started between the two sides with the British army killing a number of militia. As the war conti nued, a great damage was inflicted on British army, as thousands of militia fought them, before reinforcement was brought to help them to prevent more damages. On their way to capture Canada from British emperor, the militiamen were grouped into two groups with each having a leader. The group lad by Richard Montgomery with more than 1500 men attacked northern Canada forcing the governor of Quebec to escape. The second group led by Arnold, was not a success because many men succumbed to smallpox.Although Montgomery was killed, the groups after merging again, held the city of Quebec until British war ships arrived to get hold of the siege. The militia played a cat and mouse game to the British army. They could engage the British army in fighting, retreat and the came again when the army was not aware. The militiamen were determined, courageous and ready to overthrow the British emperor at all cost for their independence. Paris Treaty In 1777, France and her allies (Spain and Dutch) en tered in the war to support the Americans.Her involvement proved decisive when the second British army surrendered to her naval army. â€Å"As a result a treaty had to be signed to end the American war and recognize the sovereignty of United States of America over the territory bounded by what is now called Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and Mississippi river to the west† (Bobrick, 1998) As the political support of war plunged, the British prime minister resigned in 1782 leading to the house of common to vote in favor of ending war with Americas.Signing of preliminary peace articles followed in Paris but the war ended when the Paris treaty was signed between America, France and Britain in 1783. The American-French alliance proved too strong to British army. As a result, British government together with American representatives in Europe began peace negotiations to stop the alliance against Britain. In the negations Britain negotiator was supposed to acknowledge th at he was negotiating with American states not colonies.â€Å"First the French and Spanish military were to besiege fortress of Gibraltar, which was the seaway connecting Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea† (Burnett, 1941). What followed is that the alliance was weakened and France relentlessly accepted a preliminary peace treaty between Britain and United states which was formalized later. The treaty was signed in September 1783 despite British parliamentary protest of some of agreements contained in the deal. The Article of Confederation â€Å"The article of confederation was the governing constitution of thirteen independent and sovereign states style â€Å"(United States of America)† (Ward, 1952).The article was proposed in 1777 and ratified in 1781 uniting the states into the â€Å"United States of America† as a union with confederation government. The article gave the states the power to all government functions not posed by the central government. The article stipulated the rules for operation of the â€Å"united states† confederation. The article allowed the confederation to make war, negotiate agreements and settle maters concerning the western territories. However, the confederation had no power to mint coins or borrow with or outside United States. Each state had its own currency.The main reason for drafting the article was to provide a plan for securing the freedom, sovereignty and independence of United State. The article stipulated that the confederation to be known as â€Å"the united States of America†, each stated to retain its freedom, independence and sovereignty. The article also established the United States as league of states united and freedom of movement across the states. In the article; each state was allocated one vote in congress of confederation, the central government was only the one to conduct foreign relations and declare war.The article further stated that; expenditures by the United Stat es would be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, defined the powers of central government and the admission of new state was to be approved by nine states. The article also mandated a committee to be a government when the congress was in session. In addition, the article reaffirmed that the confederation accepts war debt incurred by congress before the articles. Finally it declared that the article was final and only could be altered by approval of congress.Some of the weaknesses of the article includes; power of central government was weak because each states had powers, there was no balance between the large and small states in legislative decision making, the congress lacked taxing authority hence could not plan on expenditures, some argued that the provisions of the article were no favorable for effective government, and under the article, congress did not had powers to regulate trade. Its main strength was that it gave direction to the continental army and thus helped to win the American revolutionary war.Ways that the Constitution remedied the flaws in the Articles The article of confederation was replaced by the U. S. constitution which changed the government from confederation to federation. The constitution is the supreme law that outlines the organization of United States of America. Constitution defines that the government has three branches namely; the legislative, an executive branch led by the president and judicial branch headed by Supreme Court. The document also states the powers of each branch and reserves rights of each state, hence establishing United States federal system of government.â€Å"The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both† (Collier, 2007) The constitution estab lished the manner of election and vested all legislative powers to the congress of United States of America which consisted of; senators who headed states and House of Representatives who represented the lower house.The executive branch outlined the qualification of president and also makes provision for the post of vice president. The vice president was given powers to succeed the president incase the president; died, resigned, removed or unable to discharge duties. The constitution requires that there will be one court (supreme), but the congress could create lower courts that judgments are reviewable by the Supreme Court. The constitution sets all the cases and defines who to hear the same. The constitution defined the relationship between the states and the federal government and amongst the state.The state government was prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states. There must be fair treatment to all citizens regardless of which state he/she comes from. Lega l basis of freedom of movement and travel amongst the states was laid in the constitution. This provision was not taken more seriously as it was the case in the time of articles of confederation, where crossing of states lines was costly. Within the constitution, there provision for creations of new states and the congress is given the power to make rules concerning the disposal of federal property.The United States is required to allow each state to have a republican government and protect the states from all attacks. The constitution and laws of states were to set in such a way that it did not conflict with the laws of the federal government and incase of conflict, judges were supposed to honor federal laws over those of states. Constitution addressed the freedoms of; religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. States were give were right to keep and maintain militia and individuals to poses arms. Government was prohibited from using private homes to keep soldiers without cons ent of owners.The constitution required that; a warrant of arrest be issued, prohibited repeated trial, guaranteed a speedy trial for criminals and forbade excessive bail or fines. How was revolutionary revolution The American Revolutionary was actuary a revolution, there was change of power and change in organizational structures. American wanted a change; wanted to be represented in the parliament, wanted to get benefits of the tax they paid etc. It was the result of the war and signing of Paris treaty that Britain moved from America and America was declared independent.This is a political revolution where a political regime was â€Å"overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extra constitutional and/or violent fashion†(Ward, 1952) The U. S. constitution replaced the articles of confederation, which change government from confederation to federal one. Both the French, American, Russian, and Iranian revolution were accompanied by turmoil and b lood shade. The French revolution was transformation of government from anarchy to a form based on reason, nationalist, citizenship and inalienable rights.Russian revolution was made to change the nature of society and transform the state with replacement of Tsarist autocracy with Soviet Union The Iranian revolution transformed Iran from a monarchy to an Islamic republic. In general all the revolution involves transformation of government from one form to another, although American underwent both government transformation and change of land ownership. Reference Bobrick, Benson (1998). Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution. Penguin, paperback reprint Burnett, Edmund Cody (1941).The Continental Congress: A Definitive History of the Continental Congress from Its Inception in 1774 to March, 1789 Collier, C. (2007) Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787. New York: Random House. Savas, Theodore, P. and Dameron, J. David (2006). A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution, New York. Ward, Christopher (1952). The War of the Revolution: History of land battles in North America, 2, New York: Macmillan. Greene, Jack P. (1987). Introduction. The American Revolution, Its Character and Limits. New York University Press: New York.